Political Violence 22, 479494. Which quickly snowballed into hate. 37, 623645. Whitlark, J. New York: Knopf/HarperCollins. Salman, A. M. B. European political parties are cashing in on this 'Us vs Them' divide. Naturally, social and political dimensions of religion will often be inter-related, especially where groups seek political power to impose their socially extreme viewpoint. By capturing how extremism is manifested across particular dimensions and how these dimensions predict support for violence, policy-makers can be more focused in countering the religious narratives that might be employed as the catalyst of violence and which are not relevant to address (or even counter-productive). G. Giordan and W. H. Jr. Swatos (Springer Science & Business Media: New York, NY). doi: 10.1080/09546553.2010.491009. However, The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) frequently criticizes the members of Hizbut Tahrir because they disagree with the best Islamic method to achieve their shared goal. 41, 3357. We argue that the four dimensions of religious extremism (i.e., political, theological, ritual, and social) provide a useful framework to locate religious groups, which allows for a better understanding of the way in which their religion is expressed and, importantly, the way in which they aim to achieve religious goals by peaceful or less peaceful ways. (2014). Still, the Holy Roman Empire may have controlled much of Europe at the time, though it was essentially a collection of semi-autonomous states or fiefdoms. Moderate groups can accept the influence of tradition within ritual as it is not a compulsory ritual and not directly taught by God. This usage is in contrast to the definitions proposed by scholars who have associated extremism exclusively with violent intergroup conflict. Violent actions against Rohingya Muslims in 2017 by Rakhine Buddhist were justified as mere crackdowns against suspected Rohingya insurgents, suggesting that the political dimension may be most important to understand extremism in this context. Law 23, 485506. Religion, collective action, and the onset of armed conflict in developing countries. The resulting treaty, the so-called Peace of Prague, protected the territories of the Lutheran/Calvinist rulers of northeastern Germany, but not those of the south and west in present-day Austria and the Czech Republic. 56 6.4 RELIGIOUS CONFLICT Human beings have struggled against one another for a variety of reasons. Specific rituals allow for the expression of worship or shared feelings with others (Whitehouse and Lanman, 2014), helping to construe notions of religion as a lived experience. Therefore, the label of extremist is attributed to groups fighting for their political agendas against mainstream systems accepted by the majority of people (e.g., ISIS against the government of Syria, or MILF or Moro Islamic Liberation Front against the government of the Philippines). Psychol. (1968). For instance, as seen in the narratives of some extremist groups in Indonesia who highlight the crisis of Islam as a call to seek systemic change, we predict that perceived injustice toward the religion by outsiders can enhance extremism on the political dimension, but may not affect extremism on the other dimensions as strongly. Ultimately, though, historians believe the Peace of Westphalia laid the groundwork for the formation of the modern nation-state, establishing fixed boundaries for the countries involved in the fighting and effectively decreeing that residents of a state were subject to the laws of that state and not to those of any other institution, secular or religious. Moderate views of God as a personal agent (theism; Bader and Palmer, 2011) present a being fostering love and not hostility, whereby the image of God is characterized by gracious images (e.g., The Merciful, The Benevolent, etc.) European leaders often highlight the difference in the cultural and social values between Muslims and Christians. Thus, although these groups tend to be extreme on the ritual dimension, they are more moderate on other dimensions. G. T. Kurian (Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing). Some groups have very little latitude in how they understand and practice their religious rituals and justify the other practices as forbidden innovation. The transnational network of Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia. One of Ferdinand II's first . Corrections? In contrast, more moderate members of a religion often attribute the root causes of in-group problems to internal factors such as anti-intellectual biases, geopolitical instability, and corruption (Lackey, 2013). 18, 735755. However, more extreme religious groups often actively reject this collaborative effort, as they perceive inter-religious dialogue as part of a conspiracy to weaken the faith in their religion. This threw them on the countryside for their supplies, and thus began the wolf-strategy that typified this war. Interpreting extremism relative to these four dimensions provides new insights when examining the global issue of religious extremism and helps to better predict how religious extremism is expressed. Europe has seen a rise in Islamic terror between 2014 and 2016, there were several terror attacks inspired by the Islamic State. Causes of Interreligious Conflict - JSTOR With this approach, it is important to be mindful of the fact that when researchers explore the relationship of religious extremism and other psychological processes, the type (dimension) of extremism needs to be considered. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, and sometimes contested (e.g., religious fundamentalism may be used by some scholars to refer to a rigid interpretation of scriptures, in contrast to religious extremism which is often associated with a particular political agenda). The United Netherlands was recognized as an independent republic. In this model, the salience of subgroup identity (e.g., as an activist of PKS or Hizbut Tahrir) can lead to a tendency to seek in-group favoritism, which in turn enhances their sense of self. Islam and Christianity are competing for converts in parts of black Africa. However, some groups restrict its interpretation to waging holy war, such as Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), Salafi Jihadi groups, and Jemaah Ansharut Tauhid (Haron and Hussin, 2013). Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window), Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window), Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window), Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window), Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window), Getty Images / Heritage Images / Contributor, https://www.history.com/topics/european-history/thirty-years-war. In addition, we were inspired by various religious movements in Indonesia that have different emphasis on their narratives and actions. However, once religion has spread to a wider community, different patterns of rituals may emerge from either local customs or from the integration of religious rituals with local traditions. Nevertheless, their activists are moderate on the ritual dimension they do not criticize other Muslims for their innovative rituals (e.g., celebration of the Prophets birthday) and they do not support the use of physical violence in pursuing political demands (See: Ward, 2009; Schmid, 2013; Parveez, 2017). We propose that intolerance of diversity in ritual practices distinguishes moderates from extreme religious groups on this dimension. The Hague, The Netherlands: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Religious conflict can ensue from political conflict. Migr. What led to the end of Denmark as a European power? Psychol. doi: 10.1002/bsl.653, Arifianto, A. R. (2017). Psychol. Thirty Years' War, (1618-48), in European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. For example, in Indonesia, when the former governor of Jakarta (Basuki Tjahaya Purnama aka Ahok) was eventually indicted on charges of insulting a section of the Quran, many Muslim groups were united in their efforts to demand punishment of him. As some countries have modernized and industrialized, traditional religious values have often stood in stark contrast to the practices of migrant groups and tourists. doi: 10.1037/pspi0000111, Whitehouse, H., and Lanman, J. They believe that political norms should be applied to change the current locally adapted political systems across many Muslim countries. INTRODUCTION Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) young adults are at disproportionate risk for experiencing distress and abuse. The member states of the Holy Roman Empire were granted full sovereignty. Inq. Forbes. doi: 10.5367/sear.2010.0018, Paloutzian, R. F. (2017). The concept of radicalization as a source of confusion. Such an exploration may well lead to the conclusion that the political dimension is the most important dimension to explain violent behavior and that the other three proposed dimensions (e.g., theological, social, and ritual) are less relevant. The significance of social identity concept for social psychology with reference to individualism, interactionism, and social influence. As a result, there has been an intense debate concerning the social risk vs. value of religion and its role within the state (Coyle and Lyons, 2011). Narcotics, radicalism, and armed conflict in Central Asia: the Islamic movement of Uzbekistan. All Rights Reserved. New York University Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, University of Studies G. d'Annunzio Chieti and Pescara, Italy. Sci. Life satisfaction and religiosity in broad probability samples. Our purpose in this paper is to illustrate that different dimensions of religion are relevant to understanding religious extremism, and that the four dimensions discussed provide clarity in distinguishing a diversity of extreme vs. moderate presentations in the Indonesian Muslim context. The Thirty Years War was a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Non-violent extremists? Likewise, such attributions also dominated when explaining the 2018 earthquake in Lombok Island (Habdan and Baits, 2018). Rev. In this approach, extreme religious movements seek political power, to promote the adoption of their religious norms through laws or force. Glock, C. Y., and Stark, R. (1965). Using a classical standpoint that religion is expressed through multiple dimensions (Glock and Stark, 1965; Saroglou, 2011), we propose to examine a multidimensional religious extremism through separate political, theological, ritual, and social dimensions which may or may not co-vary. Ethnicity, Political Systems, and Civil Wars - JSTOR Believing, bonding, behaving, and belonging: the big four religious dimensions and cultural variations. The reason why their is conflict in the name of Religion is that the People are following secondary religions and assume their secondary religion as their identity! And this feeling causes ego, if someone says a contradictory statement to their religion. Act. Yet, we would argue that the notions of good vs. bad religions, or even unidimensional and dichotomous categorizations of religiosity as moderate vs. extreme, do not do justice to the issues and lead to simplistic understandings whereby religious extremism is often only seen as a root cause of violence and terrorism. The Israel-Palestine Crisis: Causes, Consequences, Portents Strategi dakwah salafi di Indonesia (The Salafis preaching strategy in Indonesia). doi: 10.1163/157006606775569604. These incidents painted a negative image of Islam. Sci. Osman, M. N. M. (2010a). Politik 4, 75102. Resolut. Both these commonalities and differences have consequences for their relationship with other religious groups and the way they aim to achieve their goals. We draw on these frameworks to examine religious extremism. Religious conflicts around the globe and a solution Philosophy. Extremist or terrorist: spot the difference. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Rev. Understanding the multidimensionality of religion in the context of religious extremism will help in accurately depicting this phenomenon, and will facilitate understanding by scholars of the complex group processes associated with religious change, which have been neglected to date. In Finland, the number is 62%, in Italy, it becomes 53%. In 1647, the Habsburg forces led by Octavio Piccolomini were able to repel the Swedes and the French from what is now Austria. There are important similarities between Jamaah Islamiyah (JI), Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia (MMI), and Hizbut Tahrir (HT) across all four dimensions of religious extremism. The freedom to do gods will. The principal battlefield for all these intermittent conflicts was the towns and principalities of Germany, which suffered severely. Recognizing that international associations are generally confronting world problems and developing action strategies based on particular values, the initial content was based on the descriptions, aims, titles and profiles of international associations. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ed. Many religious people believe that their religious rituals are guided directly by God. It leaves no scope for pluralism, or for the Muslims to preserve their identity. Muslims make up for nearly 6% of the continent's population. (2019) found that religious/spiritual struggles partially mediated the relationship between the accumulation of major life stressors and higher levels of depression, anxiety, and social isolation, and lower levels of life satisfaction and happiness (see Figure 2). Finally, some groups that are located at the extreme end of the ritual dimension are actively campaigning to purify religious rituals and to suppress local traditions that are perceived as deviating from Islam. We argue that these tensions can also be better understood by taking account of the way in which moderate vs. more extreme expressions of identity take shape on the four identified dimensions. Glock and Stark (1965) suggested that within all religions, there are five distinct components: ideological (beliefs), intellectual (knowledge), ritual (overt religious behavior), experiential (feelings or emotions), and consequential (the effect of religiosity in the world). Specifically, the attack was motivated by a strong consensually shared belief among cult members that violence of this form would wash away their sins and this would allow them as a group to survive the imminent Armageddon. Historically, an authoritarian image of God was frequently associated with apocalyptic narratives to attract people to convert into their group and to force people to leave their immoral norms (Bossy, 2001). Gerakan salafiyah: Islam, politik, dan rigiditas interpretasi hukum Islam (the Salafi movement: Islam, politic, and the rigidity of the interpretation of Islamic law). Effects of Conflicts in Africa Solution To the Conflicts in Africa Causes of Conflict in Africa 1. Nahi Munkar. From the Bastile day attack at Nice, France to the Berlin Christmas Market Attack, according to Europol, 62 people were killed in Jihadist attacks in 2017, in 2018, the number was 13 and last year, it was 10. (2005). More recently, Saroglou (2011) proposed four basic dimensions of religion and individual religiosity that are partially distinct: believing (i.e., representing the cognitive function of religion), bonding (i.e., experiences that bond individuals with perceived transcendent reality, others, and the inner-self), behaving (i.e., specific norms and moral arguments defining right and wrong), and belonging (i.e., identification with particular tradition, denomination, or a specific religious group). The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is driven by several factors: ethnic, national, historical, and religious. Behav. Identifying the root cause of this religious-nuanced conflict is a difficult task. For example, some groups such as the Salafi movement and al Wahdah al Islamiyah in Indonesia campaign against local traditions and push for the Muslims to relinquish traditions that are perceived as not taught by the prophet (Salman, 2017). J. Dakwah 14, 125. Itwasestablishedin 1907, byHenri la Fontaine(Nobel Peace Prize laureate of 1913), andPaul Otlet, a founding father of what is nowcalled information science. Brambilla, M., Manzi, C., Regalia, C., Becker, M., and Vignoles, V. L. (2016). Yet, these four dimensions may become more or less important as a result of particular historical and cultural developments or group comparisons, and this may also mean that other dimensions may need to be considered for other religious groups, and when studying other contexts (see also, Zarkasyi, 2008; Ysseldyk et al., 2010). However, the French recovered, and fighting between the French-Protestant alliance and the forces of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were at a stalemate for the next several years. Stark, R., and Glock, C. Y. Perspect. Azman, A. Ulterior motives cause conflicts, and any ideology - whether it's religious or secular - can be used as a tool to generate dogmatic belief among the masses. For example, normative beliefs associated with an authoritarian image of God predict more support for capital punishment (Bader and Palmer, 2011). For example, the Salafi movement in Indonesia is the strongest group to strive for purity in rituals opposing more relaxed Muslim religious traditions such as allowing worship in the ancestors graveyard and the celebration of the Prophets birthday. For example, the Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) supports a comprehensive legalization of sharia, but endorses democracy and rejects the revival of the Islamic state and Caliphate (Fealy, 2004). 25, 809818. We address religious extremism and the multiple dimensions of religion in Figure 1. The Pew Global Project Attitudes. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/CO17228.pdf. Nevertheless, as noted above, political beliefs and actions have been the primary focus of religious extremism as defined by scholars (e.g., Webber et al., 2017). In addition, this group was actively involved in protests to reject the cultures and norms of other groups in Indonesia on behalf of Muslim as majority (e.g., rejecting the celebration of Valentines day). London: OUP Oxford. Ferdinand II, the Holy Roman emperor (161937) and the king of Bohemia, was the leading champion of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation and absolutist rule during the Thirty Year's War. The Thirty Years' War ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which changed the map of Europe irrevocably. Silber, M. D., and Bhatt, A. 43, 2333. However, as the Thirty Years War evolved, it became less about religion and more about which group would ultimately govern Europe. Islamic radicalism in Indonesia: the faltering revival? in Southeast Asian affairs 2004 (Singapura: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute), 104122. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01530_8.x, Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., and Anisman, H. (2010). In May 2023, Frontiers adopted a new reporting platform to be Counter 5 compliant, in line with industry standards. Consider for example the current extremism by Rakhine Buddhist in Myanmar against Rohingya Muslims. The possibility of compromise between two politically extreme movements depends on the level of identity (i.e., subgroup or subordinate identity) that is activated. 6 We have one group of scholars . 10:2560. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02560. Part of Religious Studies Morals, ethics and philosophy Religious teachings tend to focus on how people can live alongside. Wiktorowicz, Q. 6.4 RELIGIOUS CONFLICT - Introduction to Human Geography - Open Text WSU The differences along the political dimension can lead them into efforts to dominate each other, and open contests for power. Religious disagreements can be particularly intense. Meanwhile the conflict widened, fueled by political ambitions of the various powers. A second theological dimension of extremism that is relevant in the Indonesian context is adapted from Saroglous (2011) believing dimension: we propose that religions share theological beliefs, and these beliefs might be extreme or moderate. The Negative Spiral of Religious Intolerance | SPSP